Tornadoes are as hard to predict as they are to forget after experiencing one. These mysterious whirlwinds can look like ordinary clouds, hide behind heavy rain, and even

Tornadoes are as hard to predict as they are to forget after experiencing one. These mysterious whirlwinds can look like ordinary clouds, hide behind heavy rain, and even touch ground in a snowstorm. Keep reading to learn how tornadoes are formed and what myths get stuck in their vortex. 

Tornadoes are as hard to predict as they are to forget after experiencing one. These mysterious whirlwinds can look like ordinary clouds, hide behind heavy rain, and even touch ground in a snowstorm. Keep reading to learn how tornadoes are formed and what myths get stuck in their vortex. 
Remember: you can always check Weather for current weather forecasts. 

## What are tornadoes?

Tornadoes are rotating columns of air that form in a thundercloud cloud and spiral downwards. The diameter of the lower funnel reaches an average of 400 meters and depends on where the tornado travels: about 5–30 meters over water, or 1.5–4 km on land.
When a tornado is formed over water, meteorologists refer to it as a waterspout.
 

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![Source: nytimes.com/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/ifikFEPCAbxPLIEXLInT/orig)

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Source: nytimes.com

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## How tornadoes are formed?
Even today, scientists are still uncertain exactly how and why tornadoes form. The general belief is that most tornadoes come from mesocyclones when warm and cold air collide. It looks like if another cloud appears under the base of the thundercloud behind the section where precipitation is visible. 

Due to the powerful updraught and downdraught in this cloud, particles start moving rapidly enough to form a column of violently rotating air. A stream of warm air descends inside the funnel, and cold air envelops it around the outside edges. 

An area of low pressure forms in the center of the vortex, causing the descending whirlwinds to start acting like a vacuum cleaner, sucking in everything in their way. For example, the large amount of moisture that rises along with updraughts of cold air form a condensation funnel, helping make the tornado visible. 


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![Source: rri.co.id/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10879918/nwkYwcyoLgMMwiHtUXEQ/orig)

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Source: rri.co.id

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## However, sometimes tornadoes can be formed even without any temperature differences.

It's impossible to measure the speed of air in the funnel, but studies show that it's usually under 50 m/s with the potential to reach up to 100 m/s. Tornadoes move along with the thundercloud they're formed from. The longest tornado in history was the Tri-State Tornado, a vortex lasting 3.5 hours that covered 350 km from start to finish.
Where the lower funnel meets the surface of land or water, there can be a small cloud of dust, debris, or condensation rising upward. After reaching a certain height, everything picked up by the wind falls back down.
Tornadoes look a lot like a rope, whip, or long cloud. Tornadoes hidden by heavy rain or forming at night are especially dangerous and can only be detected by sound or weather radar. The color of the funnel depends on the surface: over land tornadoes get gray or white, while waterspouts are white or dark blue.
Tornadoes can form on every continent and in many countries. They're most often seen in the U.S., Argentina, and Bangladesh. In Russia, they mostly touch down in the western part of the country in the summer.

## Types of tornadoes

Here are some types of whirlwinds that can occur:
- Rope tornado: Long, thin, and often winding in appearance.
- Wedge tornado: Look like ragged clouds and are wider than they're long.
- Multi-vortex tornado: Form from two or more columns around the central vortex.


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![Source: accuweather.com/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10879918/nqqrCkBpqUDekjSGfeLh/orig)

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Source: accuweather.com

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Based on how they're formed, tornadoes can be:

- Waterspouts: Formed over the surface of seas, oceans, and occasionally lakes.
- Fire whirls: Formed from clouds during volcanic eruptions or strong fires.
- Snow devils: Formed during strong blizzards.
- Landspouts: Formed in cumulonimbus clouds when the water temperature is much warmer than the air above the clouds.
- Funnel clouds: Made of condensed droplets of water.
- Gustnado: Not connected with clouds. Formed when cold, dry air under a cloud collides with warm, moisture-rich air near the land's surface.
- Steam devils: Formed over warm bodies of water when the air above them gets very cool.  
There are several different types of scales to measure tornadoes. The most common is the Fujita Scale, with F0 and EF0 tornadoes categorized as the weakest. Category F5 and EF5 tornadoes are the most violent and can tear houses off their foundation and even damage skyscrapers. In Europe, tornado intensity is measured on the TORRO scale from T0 to T11.

## Tornado myths and misconceptions

These destructive forces of nature have a lot of legends surrounding them:
— Many people think that green skies mean a tornado is coming. While this phenomenon may be related to severe weather, scientists have found no evidence linking the unusual color to tornadoes.
— It's a common misconception that opening a window will reduce the damage from a tornado. While atmospheric pressure does drop significantly inside a tornado, the pressure difference is unlikely to cause much harm by itself. In fact, opening windows can increase the severity of damage, as a strong tornado can destroy a home whether the windows are open or not.
— Contrary to common belief, tornadoes can occur not only in open areas, but also in cities. In 1999, this was confirmed when a strong tornado hit Salt Lake City. There's also no point in hiding under freeways, as that same year a powerful tornado in Oklahoma claimed several lives.
— In fact, even large natural objects are unable to protect people against a tornado. There are cases when tornadoes crossed large rivers and even climbed mountains.


Tornadoes and how they're formed

When we think of extreme heat, visions of arid deserts, parched landscapes, and relentless sun immediately come to mind. While many places on Earth experience scorching t

When we think of extreme heat, visions of arid deserts, parched landscapes, and relentless sun immediately come to mind. While many places on Earth experience scorching temperatures, only a few hold the records for being the hottest. These regions are not just hot; they are furnaces where the heat can be unbearable, even deadly. In this article, we will explore some of the hottest places on Earth and delve into the meteorological phenomena that make these locations so extreme

When we think of extreme heat, visions of arid deserts, parched landscapes, and relentless sun immediately come to mind. While many places on Earth experience scorching temperatures, only a few hold the records for being the hottest. These regions are not just hot; they are furnaces where the heat can be unbearable, even deadly. In this article, we will explore some of the hottest places on Earth and delve into the meteorological phenomena that make these locations so extreme.

## Measuring extreme temperatures
Temperature is typically measured using thermometers placed in standardized shelters to protect them from direct sunlight, allowing for more accurate readings of air temperature. Surface temperatures, however, can be much higher and are often recorded via satellite or ground measurements. This makes comparing temperatures challenging, as older records may not be as reliable as modern data due to inconsistencies in measurement methods. Despite these challenges, certain locations have consistently recorded extreme temperatures that place them among the hottest on Earth.

## 6. Ahvaz, Iran
**Highest temperature:** 53.7°C (129°F) in 2017

Ahvaz, a city in southwestern Iran, is known for its extreme temperatures. The city is also home to the stunning White Bridge (Pol-e Sefid), an iconic landmark that spans the Karun River and is illuminated beautifully at night.

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![The White Bridge in Ahvaz, Iran. Image by Sajjadsoroosh](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/AFMmzAHXyvxXOjDhtQRQ/orig)

The White Bridge in Ahvaz, Iran. Image by Sajjadsoroosh
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### Factors contributing to Ahvaz’s heat
* Ahvaz is located near the Lut Desert, contributing to the high temperatures.
* Urban heat island effect: The urban environment of Ahvaz can further amplify temperatures due to the heat retention of buildings and pavement.

## 5. Mitribah, Kuwait
**Highest temperature:** 54°C (129.2°F) in 2016

Mitribah, a remote area in Kuwait, recorded one of the highest temperatures on Earth.

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![The skyline of Al Kuwayt, the capital of Kuwait. Image by SenuScape](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/mDxaIicSAoHZTThtrXqN/orig)

The skyline of Al Kuwayt, the capital of Kuwait. Image by SenuScape
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### Factors contributing to Mitribah’s heat
* Desert environment: Mitribah is situated in a desert climate with extreme heat and minimal precipitation.
* High-pressure systems: Persistent high-pressure systems in the region contribute to clear skies and prolonged sunshine.
## 4. Dallol, Ethiopia
**Average daily temperatures:** Exceed 40°C (104°F) with highs approaching 48.9°C (120°F)

Dallol, located in the Danakil Depression in Ethiopia, is one of the hottest inhabited places on Earth. Dallol is known for its otherworldly landscape, including colorful hydrothermal deposits and acidic hot springs, making it a popular site for adventurous travelers.
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![The Dallol volcano. Image by A. Savin](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/giievMrTStfzxidlAXfg/orig)

The Dallol volcano. Image by A. Savin
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### Factors contributing to Dallol’s heat
* Geothermal activity: The region’s geothermal activity contributes to the high temperatures.
* Desert climate: The arid climate exacerbates the heat.
## 3. Sahara Desert, North Africa
**Highest verified temperature:** 124.3°F (51.3°C) in 2018

The Sahara Desert, the world’s largest hot desert, spans several North African countries and experiences extreme heat, especially in the central regions. In El Azizia, Libya, a temperature of 57.8°C (136°F) was once recorded, though this measurement is disputed. Kebili, a desert town in Tunisia, is also known for recording one of the highest temperatures in Africa: in 1931, a temperature of 55°C (131°F) was reported, although this record is similarly considered less reliable than modern data. A much more verifiable record for the Sahara was set during the 2018 heat wave, measuring 51.3°C (124.3°F).

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![The Sahara Desert. Image by Greg Gulik](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/LGXgLpjmFmmJTWAXucrA/orig)

The Sahara Desert. Image by Greg Gulik
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### Meteorological dynamics in the Sahara
* High insolation: The Sahara receives some of the highest amounts of solar radiation on Earth.
* Arid climate: The dry conditions mean there is very little evaporation to cool the air, leading to high temperatures.
* Sand and rock composition: The sandy and rocky terrain absorbs and radiates heat efficiently.
## 2. Lut Desert, Iran
**Highest ground temperature:** 70.7°C (159.3°F) in 2005

The Lut Desert, or Dasht-e Lut, in southeastern Iran, is one of the hottest places on Earth in terms of surface temperature. According to NASA’s satellite data, this desert holds the record for the highest ground temperature ever recorded: an astonishing 159.3°F (70.7°C) in 2005. The Lut Desert is a UNESCO World Heritage site, renowned for its stunning geological formations, including the massive Yardangs — wind-carved ridges and grooves that stretch for miles.

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![Dasht-e Lut, an aerial view. Image by Ninaras](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/JFqEeBkqaUwOVKdGEMek/orig)

Dasht-e Lut, an aerial view. Image by Ninaras
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### Meteorological factors in the Lut Desert
* Surface composition: The desert features dark lava surfaces, which absorb a significant amount of solar radiation, leading to extremely high surface temperatures.
* Dry air: The arid climate means there is very little moisture in the air to absorb heat, allowing surface temperatures to soar.
* Seasonal variations: During the summer months, the lack of vegetation and moisture leads to minimal cooling at night, keeping the temperatures high.

## 1. Death Valley, California, USA
**Highest air temperature:** 53.7°C (129°F) in 2017

Located in the Mojave Desert in eastern California, Death Valley is a place synonymous with extreme heat. Furnace Creek in Death Valley recorded the highest air temperature ever observed on our planet. While many records are hard to verify, Death Valley remains the undisputed hottest place on Earth.

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![Death Valley National Park. Image by Abby Kihano](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10879918/JBEEdLYfEfFiwexPkAMi/orig)

Death Valley National Park. Image by Abby Kihano
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### Why is Death Valley so hot?
* Geography and topography: Death Valley is a below-sea-level basin surrounded by high, steep mountain ranges. This topography contributes to a phenomenon known as a “rain shadow,” where mountains block the passage of rain-producing weather systems, leading to arid conditions.
* Albedo effect: The valley’s floor consists of light-colored salt flats, which reflect sunlight and intensify the heat.
* High-pressure systems: Persistent high-pressure systems often dominate the region, leading to clear skies and prolonged sunshine.

The hottest places on Earth are fascinating examples of how geography, atmospheric conditions, and human factors interact to create extreme environments. Understanding these factors not only satisfies our curiosity but also highlights the challenges faced by people living in these regions. As climate change continues to impact global weather patterns, we could see even more record-setting temperatures in these places as well as other parts of the world. Studying these hotspots provides valuable, actionable insights into the future of our planet’s climate.


The hottest places on Earth: Where the sun’s fury is unleashed

What causes ball lightning? What is ball lightning? This is our pick of the most mind-boggling facts about ball lightning. Let's unriddle at least some of the riddles.

Ball lightning is described as shining spherical objects floating around or hovering above the ground. Most of the eye-witness accounts describe this enigmatic phenomenon as balls of fire or electricity. Despite plenty of evidence that exists, scientists are not any closer to figuring it out, and we see more and more wild speculations about these mysterious spheres of light. The internet is full of ball lightning photos believed to be real. However, most of them are manipulated images.
What causes ball lightning? What is ball lightning? This is our pick of the most mind-boggling facts about ball lightning. Let's unriddle at least some of the riddles.
 
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![Authentic zoomed out images of ball lightning at varying times. Source: journals.aps.org/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/DYEqxHxNxcYUfxWQJKam/orig)

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Authentic zoomed out images of ball lightning at varying times. Source: journals.aps.org
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## Amazing facts about ball lightning: 

- There is no accepted theory for what causes it or what it is made of (there are over 400 existing hypotheses that describe the nature of ball lightning). One of the theories suggests that these balls of fire consist of electrons and force-activated ions. Some scientists agree that the origin of this phenomenon is sustained by electromagnetic waves generated when the Earth's crust fractures. When the Earth's surface is shaking during an earthquake or minor shocks, these flows of electromagnetic waves soar into the air giving rise to luminescent spheres.
Due to the nature of this rare phenomenon having a lifetime of a few seconds, scientists have not succeeded in making extensive observations of these luminous spheres or in studying their properties.
- Ball lightning is common during thunderstorms. At other times, its causes have no relation to weather conditions.
- All attempts to produce ball lightning in the lab proved to be fruitless: though some motley crews of scientists could bring luminous objects to life, none of them could re-create the original nature of these objects.  The thing is ball lightning looks like plasma bubbles that can't last long in lab conditions.
- A "typical" ball lighting is the size of a cabbage head. There were rare eye-witnesses saying the hovering objects varied from several millimeters to few meters in diameter. Ball lightning can take different forms: it can be round, pear-shaped, circular, ellipsoid, to name just a few.
 
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![Ball lightning that went down into the house through the chimney. Engraving, 1886 Source: wikipedia.com/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/pXAOICONtFFOoVGINHwb/orig)

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Ball lightning that went down into the house through the chimney. Engraving, 1886 Source: wikipedia.com
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- According to the research made by Alexander Grigoriev, a scientist from the city of Yaroslavl, Russia, ball lightning lasts for seconds to hours and vanishes following no particular pattern: either silently or with a blast, disappearing when striking the ground or hitting any type of conductor.

- Ball lightning emits light: sometimes dim, sometimes very intense. Ball lighting can travel at speed ranging from a few centimeters per minute to tens of meters per second.

- These floating spheres can range in color from white to yellow to green, or be even translucent.

- Information about the dangers caused by ball lightning varies enormously: while some witnesses struck by the sphere say they have not suffered any burns, others claim they saw ball lightning setting a haystack alight or even killed people.
 
- Most commonly, ball lightning zips around 1.5 meters above the ground. Still further, it can go several kilometers up from the ground.

- In 1963, ball lightning passed through a US passenger aircraft and vanished instantly not hurting anyone aboard or causing damage to the plane.

- Medveditsk ridge (Russia) located at the border of the Saratov and Volgograd regions is considered to be an anomaly site with the biggest number of ball lightning occurrences across the globe.




Ball lightning. What causes ball lightning? The most incredible facts about this phenomenon


Click this link to discover the essential characteristics of El Niño and La Niña. Understand the fundamental distinctions between these two climatic events.

Discover the essential characteristics of El Niño and La Niña. Understand the fundamental distinctions between these two climatic events.


The dance between El Niño and La Niña, two significant climatic phenomena, is all about the geographic distribution of heat: it shapes the weather patterns around the equatorial Pacific Ocean. El Niño emerges as a warming phase in the Eastern and Equatorial Pacific, while its counterpart, La Niña, brings anomalous heat to the Western and Tropical Pacific.

Together, they partake in a global rhythm that affects the Equatorial Pacific Ocean and extends its reach to the South American coastlines and the broader Pacific. This delicate equilibrium is pivotal to understanding the climatic intricacies that drive atmospheric circulation, forest fires, rainfall patterns, and even fish crop across our planet.

### What are El Niño and La Niña?

El Niño is characterized by the abnormal warming of ocean waters in the central and eastern Pacific, while La Niña is identified by the abnormal cooling of these same waters.

These irregular cycles are not just oceanic events; they resonate globally. Their influences extend far beyond their Pacific origin, dictating weather alterations across continents. The irregular nature of El Niño and La Niña means that they aren’t always in full swing: some years are actually free of anomalies. Nevertheless, recognizing the heating caused by El Niño and the cooling caused by La Niña is essential for predicting and understanding the vast array of meteorological impacts they induce.

### Characteristics of El Niño and La Niña

The defining traits of El Niño and La Niña, two formidable climatic phenomena, hinge on three key characteristics: 

- Duration
- Intensity
- Typical onset dates

El Niño episodes often present with elevated sea surface temperatures that persist for several months, manifesting an intensity that can alter global weather patterns. In contrast, La Niña is noted for a cooling phase that can endure beyond the span of a year, underscoring the formidable magnitude of its impact.

The initiation of these episodes follows a natural, yet unpredictable cadence, with El Niño typically beginning in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean around late spring of the Southern Hemisphere. La Niña, often following El Niño’s lead, tends to emerge during autumn. This rhythm of heating and cooling significantly influences seasonal weather patterns, from intensifying rainfall to prolonging droughts, demonstrating a powerful sway over the Earth’s atmospheric systems.

### Causes of El Niño and La Niña

Both El Niño and La Niña are deeply rooted in the dynamics of the Pacific Ocean and the Earth’s atmosphere, particularly through the interplay of trade winds, thermocline variations, and oceanic upwelling. Trade winds typically blow westward across the Tropical Pacific, piling up warm surface waters in the west and allowing cooler waters to rise near South America, a process known as upwelling. 
During El Niño, these winds weaken or may even reverse, reducing upwelling and causing a shallow thermocline, leading to an extensive warming of the central and eastern Pacific Ocean. This shift in heat distribution disrupts the Walker circulation, a pattern of atmospheric circulation that normally sees air rising in the warm west and falling in the cooler east, thus impacting weather systems on a global scale. West Pacific is particularly impacted, manifesting in less precipitation in countries like Indonesia, Australia, and the Philippines.
On the flip side, La Niña occurs when these trade winds strengthen beyond their normal intensity, enhancing the upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich waters along the equatorial Pacific. This process deepens the thermocline and expands the area of cooler water at the surface. The strengthened Walker circulation cells during La Niña can lead to drought in the Eastern Pacific and increased rainfall in the Western Pacific.


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![Source: www.climate-science.press](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10931474/TbIGvsjzeLKsqXslHvgk/orig)

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Source: www.climate-science.press 
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These complex interactions between the ocean and atmosphere during El Niño and La Niña episodes influence the local weather and trigger a cascade of effects that can alter global climate patterns. This includes shifts in jet streams, variations in storm tracks, and the distribution of heat and precipitation around the planet. As such, the study of these phenomena is crucial for forecasting weather and understanding the broader impacts on ecosystems, agriculture, water resources, and human societies.

### Effects and Consequences

El Niño and La Niña exert profound global impacts, yielding a range of consequences that touch every corner of the Earth. Their influence is most noticeable in altered temperatures and precipitation patterns, which go on to dictate not only the health of natural ecosystems but also the viability of human activities such as agriculture and fishing.

During El Niño, the warming of the Pacific Ocean can lead to increased rainfall in some regions while causing drought in others. In agricultural terms, this can result in decreased yields in drought-stricken areas, while potentially boosting growth where the rains are bountiful. However, too much rain can also be bad news for mountainous regions like Peru. The fishing industry also feels the impact, as warmer waters disrupt marine life’s food chains and habitats, often leading to poor catches.

Conversely, La Niña typically promotes cooler atmospheric conditions and increases the intensity and frequency of rainfall in places such as the Western Pacific and the Northeast of South America. This can benefit crops that depend on water, but excessive rainfall can also cause devastating floods that destroy crops and infrastructure. In the fishing industry, the cooler waters associated with La Niña can lead to an abundance of marine life in certain areas as nutrient-rich cold water rises to the surface.

The economic effects of these climatic events are significant. They can lead to fluctuations in commodity prices, influence energy demand, and require businesses to adapt their strategies to cope with the variable supply of raw materials and goods. The uncertainty and risk associated with El Niño and La Niña underscore the need for businesses to have access to accurate climate forecasts.

In light of these challenges, it is crucial for companies to stay informed and prepared. Understanding the potential business implications of these phenomena is key to mitigating risks and capitalizing on opportunities. For a deeper dive into how El Niño and La Niña could impact your business and for tailored strategies to navigate these meteorological challenges, contact us to book a consultation with our expert meteorologists at [Meteum. Weather Solutions for Business](https://b2b.meteum.ai/api). Our team can provide you with the insights and forecasts necessary to make informed decisions, protect your interests, and drive your business forward in any climate.

### El Niño and La Niña in Brazil

El Niño and La Niña distinctly mark their presence in Brazil, a country with a tapestry of climates and terrains. In Brazil, El Niño is often synonymous with drought in the Northeast and floods in the South. The scarcity of rain in the North hampers agriculture, strains water resources, and challenges daily life. Conversely, the South sees heavy rains, resulting in floods that overflow rivers, damage crops, and displace communities.

La Niña brings a contrasting touch to the Brazilian climate. It typically alleviates the dry conditions in the Northeast, offering some respite to the parched lands, yet it can also mean less rainfall for the South, occasionally leading to water shortages and impacting hydroelectric power generation.

With its economic hub São Paulo, the Southeast experiences irregular patterns during these periods, which can affect the region’s powerhouse status by influencing water supply and energy production. The ebb and flow of these phenomena underscore the need for regional resilience and adaptive strategies to weather the effects of these powerful climatic forces. Understanding these patterns is vital for Brazil's preparedness and response to the environmental and economic challenges posed by El Niño and La Niña.

### Conclusion

In conclusion, El Niño and La Niña serve as pivotal forces in the global climatic narrative, each with distinct characteristics, causes, and far-reaching effects. They orchestrate changes in weather patterns that extend well beyond their Pacific epicenter, influencing temperatures, precipitation, and the livelihoods of communities worldwide. 

As we unravel the complexities of these phenomena, we glean a deeper understanding of Earth’s intricate weather systems, equipping us to anticipate and respond to their profound environmental and socioeconomic impacts. Their study is not merely academic but a necessity for a world that must adapt to an ever-changing climatic stage.

### FAQ

### What are El Niño and La Niña?
El Niño and La Niña are climatic events characterized by significant temperature deviations in the Pacific Ocean, impacting global weather patterns.

### What is the El Niño effect?
The El Niño effect refers to the extensive warming of the Pacific Ocean waters, influencing atmospheric circulation and climate anomalies worldwide.

### How do El Niño and La Niña influence climate?
These phenomena alter global climate patterns, causing variations in precipitation and temperature, leading to extreme weather events across different continents.

### Which is better, El Niño or La Niña?
“Better” is subjective; each phenomenon has distinct impacts, with El Niño typically associated with warming and La Niña with cooling global weather patterns.



El Niño and La Niña: What They Are, Differences

Imagine a wave so powerful it can level entire coastal cities and travel across oceans at the speed of a jet plane. This isn't science fiction — it's the awe-inspiring an

Imagine a wave so powerful it can level entire coastal cities and travel across oceans at the speed of a jet plane. This isn't science fiction — it's the awe-inspiring and terrifying reality of tsunamis, one of nature’s most destructive forces.

Imagine a wave so powerful it can level entire coastal cities and travel across oceans at the speed of a jet plane. This isn't science fiction — it's the awe-inspiring and terrifying reality of tsunamis, one of nature’s most destructive forces.
## What are tsunamis?

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![Waves crashing against a pier during a storm. Image by George Desipris/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/hgGFJzIHefbpWhVJNOTk/orig)

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Waves crashing against a pier during a storm. Image by George Desipris
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</figure>

Tsunamis, often mistakenly called “tidal waves,” are series of ocean waves triggered by the sudden displacement of large volumes of water. Unlike wind-generated waves that only affect the ocean’s surface, tsunamis [involve](https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/terms-describe-measurement-tsunamis) water movement from the surface all the way to the ocean floor.

The name “tsunami” comes from Japanese and translates literally to “[harbor wave](https://www.sms-tsunami-warning.com/pages/tsunami-definition).” Although its original meaning isn’t entirely descriptive, it’s the term we’ve adopted for these phenomena.

When a tsunami is generated, it can travel at [astonishing speeds](https://appliedsciences.nasa.gov/what-we-do/disasters/tsunamis) in the open ocean — up to 500 mph (800 km/h), comparable to a jet airplane. However, in deep water, tsunami waves may be barely noticeable, often only a foot or two high (30–60 cm). It’s only as they approach shallower coastal waters that tsunamis slow down and grow in height, potentially reaching over 100 feet (30 meters) tall.

The destructive potential of tsunamis is staggering. Between 1998 and 2017, tsunamis [caused](https://www.who.int/health-topics/tsunamis#tab=tab_1) more than 250,000 deaths globally, including over 227,000 deaths in the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami alone. The 2011 Tohoku tsunami in Japan [reached](https://appliedsciences.nasa.gov/our-impact/story/ten-years-after-japan-tsunami) heights of up to 133 feet (40.5 meters) and penetrated up to 6 miles (10 km) inland, causing widespread destruction and triggering a major nuclear disaster.
## What causes tsunamis?
The most common cause of tsunamis is underwater earthquakes. When tectonic plates suddenly shift along a fault line beneath the ocean, they can displace enormous amounts of water, setting a tsunami in motion. However, tsunamis can also be triggered by:
* Underwater landslides
* Onshore landslides in which large volumes of debris fall into the water 
* Volcanic eruptions
* Meteorite impacts (rare but possible)
## How does a tsunami wave work?

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![Tsunami progression. Image by BBC/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/bUvMXRdgklMdwRIaEQKs/orig)

<figcaption>
Tsunami progression. Image by BBC
</figcaption>
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The [mechanics of a tsunami](https://www.sciencefocus.com/planet-earth/how-do-tsunamis-form) wave are fascinating, involving complex physical processes that transform a barely noticeable disturbance in the open ocean into a potentially devastating force at the coastline. Let’s explore the journey of a tsunami from its origin to its coastal impact:
1. **Activation**: When an underwater disturbance occurs, such as an earthquake, landslide, or volcanic eruption, it displaces a large volume of water. This [displacement](https://www.maine.gov/mema/maine-prepares/preparedness-library/tsunami-wave-mechanics) can be caused by vertical movement of the ocean floor, often less than three feet (one meter), but covering a vast area. The enormous volume of water displaced creates a series of waves that spread out in all directions from the source.
2. **Build**: In the open ocean, tsunami waves are deceptively small. However, what makes tsunamis unique is their incredibly long wavelength, which can [stretch](https://www.sciencefocus.com/planet-earth/how-do-tsunamis-form) up to 125 miles (200 km) between wave crests. This long wavelength means that the entire water column, from surface to seafloor, is in motion, even in the deepest parts of the ocean. The long wavelength also contributes to the tsunami’s remarkable speed.
3. **Formation**: Each wave has a peak and a trough, and sometimes the trough of a tsunami reaches land before the peak. This causes a [drawback](https://www.sms-tsunami-warning.com/pages/tsunami-drawback) where the tide seems to recede hundreds of meters further than usual. This drawback lasts for about six minutes before the peak reaches shore.
4. **Approach**: As the tsunami approaches shallower coastal waters, its behavior changes dramatically. The wave speed decreases due to friction with the seafloor, but the energy of the wave remains largely constant. This causes the wave height to increase significantly, a process known as [shoaling](https://earthweb.ess.washington.edu/tsunami/general/physics/transform.html).
5. **Impact**: When a tsunami reaches the shore, it can manifest as a massive wall of water or, deceptively, as a rapid rise in water level — like a river flowing incredibly fast. Tsunamis don’t just crash and recede like regular waves do. They can continue to [surge](https://www.noaa.gov/jetstream/tsunamis/tsunami-propagation) inland for several minutes, carrying debris and causing widespread destruction.
## Measuring tsunami strength
<figure>

![Exaggerated tsunami devastating a city. Image by DALL·E/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/phwIUfkQavWXHftasthW/orig)

<figcaption>
Exaggerated tsunami devastating a city. Image by DALL·E
</figcaption>
</figure>

Several scales and methods are used to quantify the size and impact of tsunamis:

**Tsunami intensity scales**
* Sieberg-Ambraseys scale: This is a 6-point scale that describes the physical effects of a tsunami. However, it has been [criticized](https://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2009/teams/1/scales1.html) for not being detailed enough for modern use.
* Papadopoulos-Imamura scale: A more recent 12-point scale that aims to provide a more detailed and sensitive measure of tsunami intensity. It’s [based](https://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2009/teams/1/scales1.html) on the tsunami’s effects on humans, objects, and buildings, similar to earthquake intensity scales.

**Tsunami magnitude scales**
* Soloviev-Imamura scale: This scale [uses](https://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2009/teams/1/scales1.html) the maximum tsunami wave height to calculate a magnitude value.
* Abe magnitude scale: Developed by Katsuyuki Abe, this scale [relates](https://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2009/teams/1/scales1.html) tsunami energy to earthquake magnitude and distance from the source.

**Other measurement and description methods**
* Inundation and run-up: These [measure](https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/terms-describe-measurement-tsunamis) how far inland and how high above sea level the tsunami waters reach, respectively.
* Flow depth: This [refers](https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/terms-describe-measurement-tsunamis) to the depth of tsunami waters at various onshore locations.
* DART (deep-ocean assessment and reporting of tsunamis) systems: These deep-ocean buoys can [detect](https://www.noaa.gov/jetstream/tsunamis/detection-warning-and-forecasting) and measure tsunamis as they pass, providing real-time data for warning systems.
## Mitigating tsunami damage
<figure>

![A modern seawall on the Isle of Wight, England. Image by Oikos-team/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10879918/ZJmMXHnuktEOElrIUvom/orig)

<figcaption>
A modern seawall on the Isle of Wight, England. Image by Oikos-team
</figcaption>
</figure>

Given the immense destructive potential of tsunamis, early warning systems are crucial. NASA and other agencies are working on improving tsunami detection and warning capabilities. For example, a network of over 1,600 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) ground stations can [detect](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2019.00350/full) tectonic activity and [feed](https://www.earthdata.nasa.gov/learn/sensing-our-planet/sizing-a-tsunami) data into models that predict potential tsunami activity.

Other mitigation strategies include building seawalls and floodgates, implementing evacuation plans, and conducting public education programs. Some countries, like Japan, even maintain or plant [coastal forests](https://phys.org/news/2016-08-seawalls-coastal-forests-japan-tsunami.html) to act as natural barriers against tsunamis.

What makes tsunamis particularly dangerous is their unpredictability. Unlike hurricanes or tornadoes, which can be forecast days in advance, tsunamis can strike with little warning, making rapid and accurate early warning systems vital for saving lives.

Understanding the science behind tsunamis not only satisfies our curiosity about these powerful natural phenomena but also helps us develop better prediction and protection strategies. As we continue to study and respect the awesome power of our oceans, we improve our ability to coexist with these forces of nature.

Accurate weather forecasts, weather radar and alerts are available in the app [Weather by Meteum for iOS and Android](https://redirect.appmetrica.yandex.com/serve/1037341602000971858).

The incredible power of tsunamis: Nature’s most destructive force


Earthquakes are among the most dramatic and destructive natural phenomena. They occur when energy stored in the Earth’s crust is suddenly released. This energy release re

Earthquakes are among the most dramatic and destructive natural phenomena. They occur when energy stored in the Earth’s crust is suddenly released. This energy release results from the movement of tectonic plates, leading to seismic waves that shake the ground. Here’s an in-depth look at what causes earthquakes, how they are measured, and recent significant seismic events.

Earthquakes are among the most dramatic and destructive natural phenomena. They occur when energy stored in the Earth’s crust is suddenly released. This energy release results from the movement of tectonic plates, leading to seismic waves that shake the ground. Here’s an in-depth look at what causes earthquakes, how they are measured, and recent significant seismic events.
## What causes earthquakes?
Earthquakes occur due to the sudden release of energy stored in the Earth’s crust. This release is typically triggered by the movement of tectonic plates along faults. These movements can be categorized into three main types of interactions:

Convergent (destructive) boundaries: When two tectonic plates collide, one plate is often forced beneath the other in a process known as subduction. This process creates immense pressure and friction, leading to powerful earthquakes. A prime example of this is the subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the North American Plate along the west coast of North America​ (USGS).

<figure>

![Diagram of a convergent boundary. Image by domdomegg/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/gGxtcqCvqZBPABIxcwPe/orig)

<figcaption>
Diagram of a convergent boundary. Image by domdomegg

</figcaption>
</figure>

Divergent (constructive) boundaries: At divergent boundaries, tectonic plates move away from each other. This separation allows magma from the mantle to rise and create new crust. Earthquakes at these boundaries are generally less intense but are still significant. An example is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where the Eurasian Plate and the North American Plate are moving apart (USGS).

<figure>

![Diagram of a convergent boundary. Image by domdomegg/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/FfHvAbfraOEDekEPNTog/orig)

<figcaption>
Diagram of a convergent boundary. Image by domdomegg

</figcaption>
</figure>

Transform boundaries (faults): At transform boundaries, plates slide horizontally past each other. The San Andreas Fault in California is a notable example. The friction here causes stress to build up until it is released in an earthquake (USGS).

<figure>

![Diagram of a transform boundary. Image by domdomegg/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/JdGpUDutYHuELzymSbis/orig)

<figcaption>
Diagram of a transform boundary. Image by domdomegg

</figcaption>
</figure>
## Measuring earthquakes
To quantify the size and impact of earthquakes, scientists use a variety of scales and instruments.

Seismographs: Instruments that combine a seismometer, a timing device, and a recording device to detect and record ground motion caused by seismic waves. Analyzing seismograph data helps determine an earthquake’s location, depth, and magnitude​.

Richter scale: Developed in 1935 by Charles F. Richter, this logarithmic scale measures the magnitude of an earthquake based on the amplitude of seismic waves. Each whole number increase on the Richter scale corresponds to a tenfold increase in measured amplitude and about 31.6 times more energy release, meaning a magnitude 7.0 earthquake would be massively more impactful than a 6.0.

Moment magnitude scale (Mw): This scale provides a more accurate measure of an earthquake’s total energy release and is widely used today, especially for large, distant, or deep earthquakes.

Modified Mercalli intensity (MMI) scale: Unlike the Richter and moment magnitude scales, which measure the energy released by an earthquake, the MMI scale measures the intensity of shaking and its effects on people, structures, and the Earth’s surface. This scale ranges from I (not felt) to XII (total destruction). The MMI Scale is qualitative and is based on observed effects rather than instrumental readings.

European macroseismic scale (EMS): Similar to the MMI scale, the EMS measures the intensity of an earthquake based on its observed effects. The EMS is used primarily in Europe and ranges from I (not felt) to XII (completely devastating). It takes into account factors such as building damage, ground effects, and human perception of the shaking​.
## Interesting earthquake data
**Frequency of earthquakes**: Approximately 500,000 detectable earthquakes occur worldwide each year. Of these, about 100,000 can be felt, and around 100 cause significant damage​ (USGS)​. This means that, on average, over 1,300 earthquakes occur daily, most of which are too small to be felt by humans​ (USGS)​​​.

**The largest recorded earthquake**: The most powerful earthquake ever recorded was the Great Chilean Earthquake on May 22, 1960, with a magnitude of 9.5. It caused extensive damage and triggered a tsunami that affected coastal areas across the Pacific Ocean.

**Deepest earthquakes**: While most earthquakes occur at depths of less than 70 kilometers (43 miles), some can occur at much greater depths. These deep-focus earthquakes are typically associated with subduction zones. The deepest recorded earthquake occurred in 2015 at a depth of 700 kilometers (435 miles) in the Bonin Islands, Japan.

Manmade earthquakes: Human activity can sometimes cause detectable seismic activity, a phenomenon known as induced seismicity. These “manmade earthquakes” tend to be minor, but not without exceptions. For example, a 1952 Mw 5.7 earthquake in Oklahoma is suspected to have been caused by deep injection of wastewater by the oil industry.
## Recent significant earthquakes
**2023 Turkey-Syria earthquake**: On February 6, 2023, an Mw 7.8 earthquake struck southern Turkey and northern Syria. This event caused massive destruction, leading to over 50,000 deaths and extensive damage to infrastructure. The economic losses were substantial, estimated at $148.8 billion in Turkey and $14.8 billion in Syria. The international community responded with a large-scale rescue operation involving over 141,000 individuals from 94 countries​.

**2023 Marrakesh-Safi earthquake**: On September 8, 2023, an Mw 6.9 earthquake struck the Marrakesh-Safi region in Morocco. It was the most powerful earthquake recorded in Morocco’s history, resulting in the deaths of nearly 2,960 people and significant damage to historical landmarks.

**2023 Herat earthquakes: In October 2023**, a series of earthquakes measuring Mww 6.3 each struck the Herat Province in Afghanistan. These events caused substantial damage, with the World Health Organization estimating around 1,482 fatalities and thousands more injured​.

**2024 Noto earthquake**: On January 1, 2024, an Mw 7.5 earthquake struck the Ishikawa region of Japan, causing severe shaking and damage. This earthquake resulted in 245 deaths and significant damage to buildings and infrastructure​.

## Why understanding earthquakes matters
Understanding earthquakes is crucial for several reasons:

**Insight into Earth’s interior**: Earthquakes provide valuable information about the structure and composition of the Earth’s interior. By analyzing seismic waves, scientists can infer details about the Earth’s mantle and core.

**Preparedness and mitigation**: By studying seismic activity, scientists can identify areas at high risk for earthquakes and develop building codes and safety measures to minimize damage and casualties.

**Early warning systems**: While predicting earthquakes in advance remains beyond current scientific capabilities, early warning systems can provide crucial seconds to minutes of warning before significant shaking begins. These systems use a network of seismographs to detect the initial P-waves and send warnings to affected areas. However, these systems cannot predict the exact time, location, and intensity of future earthquakes. The Earth has numerous fault lines and spreading zones where shaking could potentially begin, making precise predictions challenging. Additionally, earthquakes often trigger a cascade of secondary natural disasters, such as landslides, dam breaks, and tsunamis, which contribute to their overall destructive potential​.

Earthquakes are a natural consequence of the dynamic processes occurring within the Earth’s crust. While they can be devastating, our growing understanding of their causes and characteristics enables us to better prepare for and mitigate their impacts. Through continued research and technological advancements, we can improve our ability to predict and respond to these powerful events, enhancing safety and resilience in earthquake-prone regions around the world.


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