As hurricane season approaches, a specialized team of pilots and meteorologists prepare to fly directly into the heart of these powerful storms. Known as "hurricane hunte

As hurricane season approaches, a specialized team of pilots and meteorologists prepare to fly directly into the heart of these powerful storms. Known as "hurricane hunters," these brave individuals risk their lives to gather critical data that helps protect millions of people in coastal communities.

As hurricane season approaches, a specialized team of pilots and meteorologists prepare to fly directly into the heart of these powerful storms. Known as "hurricane hunters," these brave individuals risk their lives to gather critical data that helps protect millions of people in coastal communities.

Hurricane hunters are [members](https://hurricanescience.org/science/observation/aircraftrecon/hurricanehunters/) of the U.S. Air Force Reserve’s 53rd Weather Reconnaissance Squadron and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Hurricane Hunters. Their mission is to penetrate tropical cyclones and [collect](https://journals.flvc.org/flgeog/article/view/84431/81541) real-time measurements of wind speed, air pressure, temperature, and humidity within the storm. The Air Force Reserve [has](https://defensescoop.com/2024/05/08/air-force-hurricane-hunters-new-tech-enhance-weather-recon-missions/) 10 full-time crews and 10 part-time crews, supported by 278 maintenance personnel and 57 additional support staff.

## A perilous journey

![Hurricane hunters fly into the eye of Hurricane Ida. Image by the National Hurricane Center](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10879918/CbeiwqvBFvkUmSBNbviH/orig)  

Flying into a hurricane is an incredibly dangerous endeavor. As the aircraft penetrates the eyewall — the ring of intense thunderstorms surrounding the eye — it encounters extreme turbulence, with wind speeds changing by over 100 mph in just a few seconds. Powerful updrafts and downdrafts can toss the plane violently, subjecting the crew to immense gravitational forces.

Despite these hazards, hurricane hunters press on, typically [flying](https://spectrumlocalnews.com/nc/charlotte/weather/2023/08/22/meet-the-teams-that-fly-into-hurricanes-for-a-living) at altitudes between 500 and 10,000 feet (150–3000 m). Their specially equipped aircraft, such as the Lockheed WC-130J and the Lockheed WP-3D Orion, are designed to withstand the punishing conditions within a hurricane.

## Vital data for forecasting
The data collected by hurricane hunters is invaluable for meteorologists at the National Hurricane Center (NHC). By measuring the central pressure and wind speeds within the storm, forecasters can better predict a hurricane's intensity, track, and potential impacts.

This information is then fed into sophisticated [computer models](https://www.nssl.noaa.gov/education/svrwx101/tornadoes/forecasting/), improving the accuracy of hurricane forecasts and enabling more effective evacuation planning and disaster response efforts. Without the daring work of hurricane hunters, our ability to predict and prepare for these destructive storms would be significantly hindered.

## A legacy of bravery
The history of hurricane hunting [dates back](https://www.theweathernetwork.com/en/news/weather/severe/this-day-in-weather-history-july-27-1943-first-ever-flight-into-a-hurricane) to 1943, when a U.S. Army Air Forces pilot intentionally flew into a hurricane near Houston, Texas, on a bet. Since then, both military and civilian crews have continued this perilous tradition, advancing our understanding of tropical cyclones and saving countless lives.

As technology has evolved, so too have hurricane hunters’ capabilities. Modern aircraft are [equipped](https://vlab.noaa.gov/web/nws-heritage/-/then-and-now-noaa-hurricane-hunters) with cutting-edge instruments, such as Doppler radar and dropsonde systems, which provide detailed measurements of wind patterns and atmospheric conditions. Dropsondes, for instance, are small devices released from the aircraft that measure various atmospheric parameters as they fall, providing valuable data about the vertical profile of the atmosphere.

## The technology behind the missions
![​​Gulfstream IV-SP (front) and WP-3D Orion. Image by weather.gov](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/VAsIiNNpLCHtkLANwRGY/orig)  

The aircraft used by hurricane hunters are marvels of modern engineering. NOAA’s two WP-3D Orion aircraft, [affectionately known](https://www.aopa.org/news-and-media/all-news/2021/january/05/move-over-kermit-and-miss-piggy) as “Miss Piggy” and “Kermit,” are equipped with dual radar systems that scan the storm both vertically and horizontally, providing a real-time picture of the developing hurricane. Additionally, NOAA’s Gulfstream IV-SP jet flies at high altitudes around the storm, collecting data on the winds and weather systems in the upper atmosphere that steer hurricanes.

In recent years, advancements in drone technology have further enhanced the capabilities of hurricane hunters. Drones like the Altius 600 are [deployed](https://www.noaa.gov/stories/drones-hunt-hurricanes-noaa-puts-some-to-test) to explore the hurricane’s inner boundary, providing detailed data measurements that help researchers determine whether a storm is intensifying. Saildrones and underwater gliders are also [used](https://research.noaa.gov/2023/06/28/noaa-deploys-drones-in-the-ocean-and-atmosphere-to-advance-hurricane-forecasting/) to measure ocean temperature and salinity, factors that can affect a hurricane’s strength and track.

![Altius 600 mid-flight. Image by Amy Tolson](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10879918/EzepqYgbDEXzrJGISCWO/orig)  

## Unsung heroes
While hurricane hunters may not receive the same recognition as other emergency responders, their contributions are no less vital. By braving the fury of nature's most powerful storms, they provide the critical data that enables communities to prepare and respond effectively.

As climate change continues to intensify hurricane activity, the role of hurricane hunters becomes even more crucial. Their bravery and dedication ensure that we are better equipped to face the challenges posed by these formidable storms, safeguarding lives and property in coastal regions around the world.

## The impact of hurricane hunter data
The data collected by hurricane hunters has a profound impact on hurricane forecasting. According to a [study](https://phys.org/news/2016-05-early-hurricane-hunter-intensity.html#:~:text=Data%20collected%20via%20airplane%20when,the%20new%20technique%20into%20practice) by Penn State researchers, incorporating hurricane hunter data into prediction models can improve hurricane intensity predictions by up to 15 percent. This improvement translates to billions of dollars in savings and provides more notice to people in the path of a storm, potentially saving lives.

During the 2017 hurricane season, hurricane hunters flew [over 90 missions](https://en.aviation-report.com/usaf-hurricane-hunters-2017-season/) into Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, Maria, and several others, providing crucial data that helped forecasters accurately predict the paths and intensities of these devastating storms. The information collected during these missions was instrumental in guiding evacuation efforts and disaster response, highlighting the critical role of hurricane hunters in protecting communities.

## A day in the life of a hurricane hunter
A [typical mission](https://www.livescience.com/60370-inside-irma-hurricane-hunters-photos.html) for a hurricane hunter crew can last up to 11 hours and cover nearly 3,500 miles (>5200 km), with some missions lasting a mind-bending 18 hours. The crew includes pilots, meteorologists, and technicians who work together to navigate the storm and collect data. The aircraft fly in and around the storm, deploying dropsondes and other instruments to gather atmospheric data.

The data collected during these missions is transmitted in real-time to meteorologists on the ground, who use sophisticated computer models to analyze and interpret the information. This real-time data is crucial for making timely and accurate forecasts, allowing communities to better prepare for the impact of the storm.

## The future of hurricane hunting
As technology continues to advance, the capabilities of hurricane hunters will only improve. NOAA is currently [upgrading](https://defensescoop.com/2024/05/08/air-force-hurricane-hunters-new-tech-enhance-weather-recon-missions/) its fleet of hurricane hunter aircraft with state-of-the-art instruments, which are expected to further enhance the accuracy of hurricane forecasts and warnings. These advancements will help ensure that communities are better prepared for the increasing threat of hurricanes in the future.

In conclusion, hurricane hunters are an essential asset in unlocking the secrets of hurricanes. Their ability to fly directly into these massive storms and collect vital data has significantly improved the accuracy of hurricane forecasts, allowing communities to better prepare and respond to these devastating natural disasters. The bravery and dedication of hurricane hunters ensure that we are better equipped to face the challenges posed by these formidable storms, safeguarding lives and property in coastal regions around the world.

So, the next time you hear a hurricane forecast, remember the unsung heroes who ventured into the eye of the storm, risking everything to keep us safe.


Who are the hurricane hunters? Into the eye of the storm: The daring work of hurricane hunters

Click this link to discover the essential characteristics of El Niño and La Niña. Understand the fundamental distinctions between these two climatic events.

Discover the essential characteristics of El Niño and La Niña. Understand the fundamental distinctions between these two climatic events.


The dance between El Niño and La Niña, two significant climatic phenomena, is all about the geographic distribution of heat: it shapes the weather patterns around the equatorial Pacific Ocean. El Niño emerges as a warming phase in the Eastern and Equatorial Pacific, while its counterpart, La Niña, brings anomalous heat to the Western and Tropical Pacific.

Together, they partake in a global rhythm that affects the Equatorial Pacific Ocean and extends its reach to the South American coastlines and the broader Pacific. This delicate equilibrium is pivotal to understanding the climatic intricacies that drive atmospheric circulation, forest fires, rainfall patterns, and even fish crop across our planet.

### What are El Niño and La Niña?

El Niño is characterized by the abnormal warming of ocean waters in the central and eastern Pacific, while La Niña is identified by the abnormal cooling of these same waters.

These irregular cycles are not just oceanic events; they resonate globally. Their influences extend far beyond their Pacific origin, dictating weather alterations across continents. The irregular nature of El Niño and La Niña means that they aren’t always in full swing: some years are actually free of anomalies. Nevertheless, recognizing the heating caused by El Niño and the cooling caused by La Niña is essential for predicting and understanding the vast array of meteorological impacts they induce.

### Characteristics of El Niño and La Niña

The defining traits of El Niño and La Niña, two formidable climatic phenomena, hinge on three key characteristics: 

- Duration
- Intensity
- Typical onset dates

El Niño episodes often present with elevated sea surface temperatures that persist for several months, manifesting an intensity that can alter global weather patterns. In contrast, La Niña is noted for a cooling phase that can endure beyond the span of a year, underscoring the formidable magnitude of its impact.

The initiation of these episodes follows a natural, yet unpredictable cadence, with El Niño typically beginning in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean around late spring of the Southern Hemisphere. La Niña, often following El Niño’s lead, tends to emerge during autumn. This rhythm of heating and cooling significantly influences seasonal weather patterns, from intensifying rainfall to prolonging droughts, demonstrating a powerful sway over the Earth’s atmospheric systems.

### Causes of El Niño and La Niña

Both El Niño and La Niña are deeply rooted in the dynamics of the Pacific Ocean and the Earth’s atmosphere, particularly through the interplay of trade winds, thermocline variations, and oceanic upwelling. Trade winds typically blow westward across the Tropical Pacific, piling up warm surface waters in the west and allowing cooler waters to rise near South America, a process known as upwelling. 
During El Niño, these winds weaken or may even reverse, reducing upwelling and causing a shallow thermocline, leading to an extensive warming of the central and eastern Pacific Ocean. This shift in heat distribution disrupts the Walker circulation, a pattern of atmospheric circulation that normally sees air rising in the warm west and falling in the cooler east, thus impacting weather systems on a global scale. West Pacific is particularly impacted, manifesting in less precipitation in countries like Indonesia, Australia, and the Philippines.
On the flip side, La Niña occurs when these trade winds strengthen beyond their normal intensity, enhancing the upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich waters along the equatorial Pacific. This process deepens the thermocline and expands the area of cooler water at the surface. The strengthened Walker circulation cells during La Niña can lead to drought in the Eastern Pacific and increased rainfall in the Western Pacific.


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![Source: www.climate-science.press](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10931474/TbIGvsjzeLKsqXslHvgk/orig)

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These complex interactions between the ocean and atmosphere during El Niño and La Niña episodes influence the local weather and trigger a cascade of effects that can alter global climate patterns. This includes shifts in jet streams, variations in storm tracks, and the distribution of heat and precipitation around the planet. As such, the study of these phenomena is crucial for forecasting weather and understanding the broader impacts on ecosystems, agriculture, water resources, and human societies.

### Effects and Consequences

El Niño and La Niña exert profound global impacts, yielding a range of consequences that touch every corner of the Earth. Their influence is most noticeable in altered temperatures and precipitation patterns, which go on to dictate not only the health of natural ecosystems but also the viability of human activities such as agriculture and fishing.

During El Niño, the warming of the Pacific Ocean can lead to increased rainfall in some regions while causing drought in others. In agricultural terms, this can result in decreased yields in drought-stricken areas, while potentially boosting growth where the rains are bountiful. However, too much rain can also be bad news for mountainous regions like Peru. The fishing industry also feels the impact, as warmer waters disrupt marine life’s food chains and habitats, often leading to poor catches.

Conversely, La Niña typically promotes cooler atmospheric conditions and increases the intensity and frequency of rainfall in places such as the Western Pacific and the Northeast of South America. This can benefit crops that depend on water, but excessive rainfall can also cause devastating floods that destroy crops and infrastructure. In the fishing industry, the cooler waters associated with La Niña can lead to an abundance of marine life in certain areas as nutrient-rich cold water rises to the surface.

The economic effects of these climatic events are significant. They can lead to fluctuations in commodity prices, influence energy demand, and require businesses to adapt their strategies to cope with the variable supply of raw materials and goods. The uncertainty and risk associated with El Niño and La Niña underscore the need for businesses to have access to accurate climate forecasts.

In light of these challenges, it is crucial for companies to stay informed and prepared. Understanding the potential business implications of these phenomena is key to mitigating risks and capitalizing on opportunities. For a deeper dive into how El Niño and La Niña could impact your business and for tailored strategies to navigate these meteorological challenges, contact us to book a consultation with our expert meteorologists at [Meteum. Weather Solutions for Business](https://b2b.meteum.ai/api). Our team can provide you with the insights and forecasts necessary to make informed decisions, protect your interests, and drive your business forward in any climate.

### El Niño and La Niña in Brazil

El Niño and La Niña distinctly mark their presence in Brazil, a country with a tapestry of climates and terrains. In Brazil, El Niño is often synonymous with drought in the Northeast and floods in the South. The scarcity of rain in the North hampers agriculture, strains water resources, and challenges daily life. Conversely, the South sees heavy rains, resulting in floods that overflow rivers, damage crops, and displace communities.

La Niña brings a contrasting touch to the Brazilian climate. It typically alleviates the dry conditions in the Northeast, offering some respite to the parched lands, yet it can also mean less rainfall for the South, occasionally leading to water shortages and impacting hydroelectric power generation.

With its economic hub São Paulo, the Southeast experiences irregular patterns during these periods, which can affect the region’s powerhouse status by influencing water supply and energy production. The ebb and flow of these phenomena underscore the need for regional resilience and adaptive strategies to weather the effects of these powerful climatic forces. Understanding these patterns is vital for Brazil's preparedness and response to the environmental and economic challenges posed by El Niño and La Niña.

### Conclusion

In conclusion, El Niño and La Niña serve as pivotal forces in the global climatic narrative, each with distinct characteristics, causes, and far-reaching effects. They orchestrate changes in weather patterns that extend well beyond their Pacific epicenter, influencing temperatures, precipitation, and the livelihoods of communities worldwide. 

As we unravel the complexities of these phenomena, we glean a deeper understanding of Earth’s intricate weather systems, equipping us to anticipate and respond to their profound environmental and socioeconomic impacts. Their study is not merely academic but a necessity for a world that must adapt to an ever-changing climatic stage.

### FAQ

### What are El Niño and La Niña?
El Niño and La Niña are climatic events characterized by significant temperature deviations in the Pacific Ocean, impacting global weather patterns.

### What is the El Niño effect?
The El Niño effect refers to the extensive warming of the Pacific Ocean waters, influencing atmospheric circulation and climate anomalies worldwide.

### How do El Niño and La Niña influence climate?
These phenomena alter global climate patterns, causing variations in precipitation and temperature, leading to extreme weather events across different continents.

### Which is better, El Niño or La Niña?
“Better” is subjective; each phenomenon has distinct impacts, with El Niño typically associated with warming and La Niña with cooling global weather patterns.



El Niño and La Niña: What They Are, Differences

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are vital components of Earth's atmosphere that regulate the planet's temperature by trapping heat — a phenomenon known as the greenhouse effect.

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are vital components of Earth's atmosphere that regulate the planet's temperature by trapping heat — a phenomenon known as the greenhouse effect. They function much like a thermal blanket, maintaining the warmth necessary to sustain life on Earth. However, human activities have significantly increased the concentrations of these gases, leading to global warming and climate change

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Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are vital components of Earth's atmosphere that regulate the planet's temperature by trapping heat — a phenomenon known as the greenhouse effect. They function much like a thermal blanket, maintaining the warmth necessary to sustain life on Earth. However, human activities have significantly increased the concentrations of these gases, leading to global warming and climate change.

## The main greenhouse gases

Several types of greenhouse gases contribute to the greenhouse effect, each originating from different sources and possessing unique properties.

### Carbon dioxide (CO₂)

Carbon dioxide is the most prevalent greenhouse gas produced by human activities. It is primarily released through the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas for energy and transportation. Since the Industrial Revolution, atmospheric CO₂ concentrations [have risen](https://www.carbonbrief.org/met-office-atmospheric-co2-now-hitting-50-higher-than-pre-industrial-levels/) by about 50%, increasing from approximately 280 parts per million (ppm) in pre-industrial times to over 419 ppm as of 2021. This unprecedented rise is a significant driver of current climate change.

### Methane (CH₄)

Methane is a potent greenhouse gas with a [global warming potential](https://www.canada.ca/en/services/environment/weather/climatechange/climate-plan/reducing-methane-emissions/faster-further-strategy.html) more than 25 times that of CO₂ over a 100-year period. It is primarily produced through agricultural activities such as livestock farming and rice cultivation, as well as from the decomposition of organic waste in landfills and emissions from oil and gas extraction. Methane concentrations [have more than doubled](https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/climate-change-indicators-atmospheric-concentrations-greenhouse-gases) since pre-industrial times, contributing significantly to climate warming.

### Nitrous oxide (N₂O)

Nitrous oxide is mainly emitted from agricultural practices, especially the use of synthetic and organic fertilizers that enhance nitrogen availability in soils. It is also released during industrial processes and combustion of fossil fuels and biomass. N₂O has a global warming potential [approximately](https://www.caro.ie/knowledge-hub/general-information/science-of-climate-change/greenhouse-gases) 298 times that of CO₂ over a 100-year period, making it a significant contributor despite its lower concentration.

### Water vapor (H₂O)

Water vapor is the most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, though it is not directly emitted by human activities. Its concentration increases as the atmosphere warms because warmer air can hold more moisture. This creates a positive feedback loop: as temperatures rise due to other greenhouse gases, water vapor levels increase, which in turn amplifies the warming effect.

## How greenhouse gases work

The greenhouse effect involves the absorption and re-emission of infrared radiation by greenhouse gases, leading to the warming of the Earth's surface and lower atmosphere.

### The basic mechanism

Solar radiation from the Sun, primarily in the form of visible light and ultraviolet radiation, passes through the Earth's atmosphere and reaches the surface. The Earth's surface absorbs this energy, warming up in the process, and then re-emits it as longwave infrared radiation. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb some of this infrared radiation and re-emit it in all directions, including back toward the surface. This process traps heat in the lower atmosphere, raising the planet's average temperature. Without this natural greenhouse effect, Earth's average temperature [would be](https://www.earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/GlobalWarming/page2.php) about –18°C (0°F) instead of the current average of approximately 15°C (59°F).

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### Specific mechanisms of different greenhouse gases

Each greenhouse gas absorbs infrared radiation at specific wavelengths, contributing differently to the greenhouse effect.

* **Carbon dioxide (CO₂)** [absorbs](https://michiganstopsmartmeters.com/how-does-co2-absorb-infrared/) infrared radiation at wavelengths around 15 micrometers and can remain in the atmosphere for centuries, making it a significant long-term driver of climate change.

* **Methane (CH₄)** absorbs infrared radiation at wavelengths near 7.66 micrometers. Although methane has a shorter atmospheric lifetime — about 12 years — it is [over 80 times](https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/methane/?intent=121) more effective than CO₂ at trapping heat over a 20-year period.

* **Nitrous oxide (N₂O)** absorbs infrared radiation at wavelengths around 7.8 micrometers. With an atmospheric lifetime of about 114 years, it has a [long-term impact](https://www.soest.hawaii.edu/mguidry/Unnamed_Site_2/Chapter%202/Chapter2C3.html#:~:text=Nitrous%20oxide%20enhances%20the%20greenhouse,to%20destruction%20of%20stratospheric%20ozone) on warming.

* **Water vapor (H₂O)** absorbs infrared radiation across a wide range of wavelengths. Its concentration is directly related to temperature, leading to a feedback loop that amplifies warming caused by other greenhouse gases.

### The enhanced greenhouse effect

Human activities have intensified the natural greenhouse effect by increasing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere.

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**Increased concentrations:** Since the Industrial Revolution, atmospheric concentrations of CO₂, methane, and nitrous oxide have risen sharply due to activities such as fossil fuel combustion, deforestation, and industrial processes. For instance, CO₂ levels [have increased](https://newatlas.com/environment/atmospheric-co2-50-percent-higher-pre-industrial-levels/) from about 280 ppm in the pre-industrial era to over 419 ppm in 2021.

**Positive feedback loops:** Warming temperatures can trigger processes that release additional greenhouse gases, creating positive feedback loops. For example, thawing permafrost in Arctic regions releases methane and CO₂ previously trapped in frozen soils, further enhancing warming.

**Climate sensitivity:** Climate sensitivity refers to the amount of global temperature increase expected from a doubling of CO₂ concentrations compared to pre-industrial levels. [Current estimates](https://www.realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2021/08/notallmodels/) suggest a likely range of 2.5°C to 4°C, with a best estimate of around 3°C. Understanding climate sensitivity is crucial for predicting future climate impacts and informing policy decisions.

## Measuring and monitoring

Scientists use various methods to measure greenhouse gases and assess their impact on the climate. Understanding the mechanisms and impacts of greenhouse gases is essential for developing effective strategies to mitigate climate change.

**Direct atmospheric measurements:** Monitoring stations worldwide, such as the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii, continuously measure atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases. These measurements provide critical data on how concentrations change over time.

**Satellite observations:** Satellites equipped with spectrometers measure the Earth's energy balance and the distribution of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. They can detect changes in outgoing longwave radiation, offering insights into how the greenhouse effect is altering.

**Ice core analysis:** By examining air bubbles trapped in ice cores from Antarctica and Greenland, scientists reconstruct past atmospheric compositions, extending back hundreds of thousands of years. This information helps contextualize current greenhouse gas levels within historical variations.

**Spectroscopy:** Spectroscopic techniques identify specific greenhouse gases by their unique absorption spectra, enabling precise measurements of atmospheric composition and the study of gas interactions with radiation.

## Kazakhstan: a case study in greenhouse gas emissions

Kazakhstan offers a compelling example of the challenges and efforts associated with greenhouse gas emissions in a developing economy.

### Emissions profile

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[In 2021](https://icapcarbonaction.com/system/files/ets_pdfs/icap-etsmap-factsheet-46.pdf), Kazakhstan's total greenhouse gas emissions were approximately 338 million metric tons of CO₂ equivalent, marking an increase from previous years. The energy sector is the largest contributor, [accounting](https://www.usaid.gov/energy/auctions-kazakhstan) for about 82% of the country's total emissions in 2015. This high percentage reflects Kazakhstan's heavy reliance on fossil fuels, particularly coal, for electricity generation and industrial processes.

Per capita, Kazakhstan's emissions are relatively high, [standing](https://data.jrc.ec.europa.eu/collection/edgar) at around 17.3 metric tons of CO₂ equivalent per person as of 2022. This ranks the country among the top emitters on a per capita basis, highlighting its energy-intensive economy.

Kazakhstan contributes [approximately](https://data.jrc.ec.europa.eu/collection/edgar) 0.6% of global greenhouse gas emissions, making it one of the top 30 emitters worldwide. While this may seem small in global terms, it is significant for a nation with a population of about 19 million.

### Climate change impacts in Kazakhstan

The effects of increased greenhouse gas emissions are already apparent in Kazakhstan.

**Rising temperatures:** Between 1941 and 2020, the average annual temperature in Kazakhstan [increased](https://bnrc.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s42269-023-01122-w) by about 2°C, exceeding the global average temperature rise. This warming trend affects agriculture, water resources, and ecosystems, potentially threatening food security and livelihoods.

**Extreme weather events:** Kazakhstan has experienced an increase in extreme weather events, including droughts, floods, and heatwaves. These events have substantial social and economic impacts, damaging infrastructure and affecting public health.

**Glacial retreat and water resources:** The country's glaciers are retreating, which threatens water supplies for agriculture and human consumption in downstream regions. Reduced glacial meltwater can lead to water shortages during dry seasons.

**Desertification:** Increasing temperatures and changing precipitation patterns contribute to desertification, impacting arable land and biodiversity.

### Mitigation efforts

Kazakhstan has implemented several strategies to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions and address climate change.

**Emissions trading system:** In 2021, Kazakhstan [adopted](https://icapcarbonaction.com/en/ets/kazakhstan-emissions-trading-system) a new Environmental Code that includes an emissions trading system. This market-based approach aims to incentivize emission reductions in the industrial sector by setting caps and allowing trading of emission allowances.

**Renewable energy expansion:** The country is increasing its share of renewable energy sources. [By 2021](https://www.undp.org/kazakhstan/news/reducing-temperatures-kazakhstan-takes-action-against-climate-change), Kazakhstan had over 115 renewable energy facilities in operation, including wind, solar, and hydropower plants. The government [aims](https://daryo.uz/en/2024/07/26/central-asia-advances-green-energy-with-initiatives-and-regional-cooperation) to produce 15% of its electricity from renewable sources by 2030 and 50% by 2050.

**Transition to natural gas:** Kazakhstan is transitioning from coal to natural gas for electricity generation and heating. Projects like the "[Saryarka](https://astanatimes.com/2020/01/kazakh-government-commissions-saryarka-gas-pipeline/)" gas pipeline are expanding access to natural gas, particularly in regions previously reliant on coal. This shift reduces carbon intensity and improves air quality.

**International commitments:** Kazakhstan [has pledged](https://astanatimes.com/2020/12/tokayev-announces-kazakhstans-pledge-to-reach-carbon-neutrality-by-2060/) to achieve carbon neutrality by 2060 as part of its commitment to the Paris Agreement. The country submitted its updated Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) in 2021, aiming to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 15% by 2030 compared to 1990 levels.

**Energy efficiency initiatives:** Efforts are underway to improve energy efficiency across various sectors, including industry, transportation, and buildings. This includes adopting new technologies, enhancing regulations, and promoting public awareness to reduce energy consumption.

As global efforts to combat climate change intensify, countries like Kazakhstan will play a crucial role. Their ability to transition to cleaner energy sources and implement effective climate policies is vital in the global fight against climate change. Continued international cooperation, technological innovation, and investment in sustainable practices are essential to support these transitions.

Greenhouse gases: The invisible drivers of climate change

Meteum meteorologists forecast spring in Brazil will be cooler and rainier than last year, but still hot and dry relative to the climatic norm

According to the forecast provided by Meteum meteorologists, spring in Brazil will be cooler and rainier than last year, but still hot and dry relative to the climatic norm

According to the forecast provided by Meteum meteorologists, spring in Brazil will be cooler and rainier than last year, but still hot and dry relative to the climatic norm.

This spring, the country's weather will once again reflect the influence of global climate changes. In 9 megacities, the positive temperature anomaly will be significant: Brasília, Salvador, Fortaleza, Belo Horizonte, Manaus, Goiânia, Belém, São Luís, and Campo Grande. In all other cities, hotter weather compared to the long-term average is also expected, especially in October and November. However, fortunately, temperatures will be lower almost everywhere compared to the abnormal heat of 2023, with no new temperature records anticipated.

The situation with precipitation is more complex. On one hand, the rainfall pattern will return to the climatic norm across most states. The exceptions will be the state of Pará and the Northeastern region, including Recife, Salvador, São Luís, Belém, and Fortaleza. Droughts could be particularly severe in Fortaleza and Recife. In Recife, rainfall might reach record lows for the past 30 years, with only about 80 mm.

On the other hand, compared to the extremely dry 2023, this spring will be noticeably wetter across much of Brazil. Rainfall in Rio de Janeiro will increase by 1.5 times, in Manaus, Goiânia, and Belo Horizonte by 2 times, and in Campo Grande by almost 2.5 times. The next three months will also be wetter in São Paulo and Brasília. Overall, October to December will bring more rain than last year to the Northern, Central-West, and Southeastern regions, which is great news given the issue of widespread forest fires. Interestingly, the Southern region will also see rainfall return to the climatic norm across all states. However, compared to the abnormal spring of 2023, there will be significantly less rain in Curitiba (Paraná) and Porto Alegre (Rio Grande do Sul), by 1.3 and 1.6 times, respectively.

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![Rainy day in Rio-de-Janeiro. Source: gringo-rio.com/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10879918/YLOZtkVUqWDTQePYwJZM/orig)

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Rainy day in Rio-de-Janeiro. Source: gringo-rio.com

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## Monthly weather forecast in Brazil

**At the end of September**, rain is likely in São Paulo, Recife, Salvador, Campo Grande, Curitiba, and Porto Alegre. In other cities, mostly clear weather is expected, as in Fortaleza and São Luís, or partly cloudy skies. The lowest daytime highs are forecasted for Porto Alegre (17-21°C), Curitiba (20-26°C), Salvador (24-28°C), Recife (26-29°C), and Rio de Janeiro (24-31°C). The highest temperatures are expected in Belém (33-38°C), Goiânia (36-39°C), Campo Grande (36-40°C), and Manaus (37-42°C).


<figure>

![São Paulo. Source: unsplash.com/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10879918/iTfKrPyizhYPjenLTORx/orig)

<figcaption>
São Paulo. Source: unsplash.com

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</figure>


**In October**, hotter and drier weather is expected compared to the climatic norm. However, it will be cooler and rainier in many central and northern states compared to 2023. A significant drop in average monthly temperatures and an increase in rainfall is forecasted in the Amazon region, Goiás, Mato Grosso do Sul, and Bahia. In Manaus, rainfall is expected to be 3.5 times higher than last year (150 mm), in Campo Grande 2 times higher (130 mm), in Goiânia, Belém, and Salvador 1.5 times higher (100 mm, 25 mm, and 45 mm, respectively). Meanwhile, drier conditions are expected in Recife, Fortaleza, and the Southern and Southeastern regions. For example, São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro are expected to receive 1.5 times less rainfall—around 140 mm and 110 mm, respectively. Curitiba will receive 2 times less (around 170 mm).

**In November**, the situation will remain similar, but the noticeable drop in temperatures will affect not only the Amazon region, Goiás, Bahia, and Mato Grosso do Sul, but also Mato Grosso, Minas Gerais, São Paulo, Espírito Santo, and Rio de Janeiro. In Belo Horizonte, 3.5 times more rain is expected compared to last year (185 mm), in Goiânia and Campo Grande 3 times more (195 mm and 155 mm), and in São Luís 2 times more (30 mm). In Belém and Manaus, 1.5 times more rain is expected (45 mm and 195 mm). A significant reduction in rainfall is forecasted for the states of Rio Grande do Sul and Ceará: up to 120 mm in Porto Alegre (3 times less) and up to 10 mm in Fortaleza (2 times less).

**December** will be dry and hot in the Northeastern corner. In Fortaleza, Recife, and Salvador, rainfall is expected to be half of what it was last year (28 mm, 28 mm, and 33 mm, respectively). However, in several states in the Amazon, the Central-West region, and the states of Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, and eastern Paraná, the last month before Christmas will be cool and rainy. Rainfall in Curitiba and São Paulo is expected to be 2.5 times higher than in 2023 (165 mm and 195 mm), in Rio de Janeiro, Belo Horizonte, and Campo Grande 2 times higher (200 mm, 265 mm, and 205 mm), and in Manaus and Goiânia 1.5 times higher (310 mm and 225 mm).


<figure>

![New Year’s Eve in Brazil. Source: www.bookmundi.com/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10879918/RachqoqkLMoMGyowjRMf/orig)

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New Year’s Eve in Brazil. Source: www.bookmundi.com

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</figure>

Spring in Brazil: cooler and rainier than last year, but still hot

Discover the mesmerizing spectacle of fire tornadoes, a natural phenomenon that showcases nature's fiery power

Nature is full of astonishing phenomena! There are the beautiful ones like rainbows, silvery clouds, and halos, and then there are the terrifying ones. We recently wrote about volcanic eruptions - it's horrifying to imagine cities being engulfed by molten lava. But there are other equally shocking spectacles - fire tornadoes.

Today, we discuss the reasons behind these phenomena and end by showcasing some of the most devastating examples.
<figure>

![Source: www.nationalgeographic.com/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/GoUgjdztbNiHYpUXplhR/orig)
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Source: www.nationalgeographic.com

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</figure>
### How They Form
A fire tornado originates when several large fire sources combine. The heated air above them becomes less dense and rapidly rises. Cooler air currents from the surrounding area replace it at ground level, further fanning the flames. The more intense the fire and the rising air above it, the faster these currents become.

Due to the centripetal motion and high wind speeds, various objects can be drawn into the fire's epicenter – from dust to trees ripped out by the wind. Above this center, burning particles spiral upwards, dragging flames with them and forming fiery columns. Some can reach heights of over 1 km.

The temperature of these whirlwinds ranges around 1000-1500 °C. Another risk they pose is their ability to "shoot" burning debris, leading to new fires nearby.

Because of the rapid ascent of air, together with fire tornadoes, a unique type of cloud usually forms - the pyrocumulus or pyrocumulonimbus clouds. We will discuss these in one of our upcoming articles.

### Where They Occur
Tornadoes can emerge anywhere extensive fires take place; they have no specific geography. For instance, in recent years, they've been frequently spotted in areas affected by intense forest fires - in the USA, Australia, Russia, Japan, and European countries.
<figure>

![Source: belta.by/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5257675/ZEDLttSqVduRBLDQdJZM/orig)

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Source: belta.by
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</figure>
### Examples of Fire Tornadoes
— 1923, Japan: In just 15 minutes, a fire tornado resulting from an earthquake and the fires it caused throughout Tokyo took the lives of about 40,000 people.

— 1941-1945, World War II: Due to bombings during the war, heated tornadoes raged often. One of the largest was a tornado in Hamburg in 1943. Sparked by a massive citywide fire from bombings and reaching heights of nearly 500 meters, it led to the death of around 40,000 people. In 1945, in Dresden, a fire tornado claimed more than 20,000 lives. In that same year in Kobe, Japan, a fiery tornado took 7,000 lives. Later, a similar tornado occurred in Hiroshima after the nuclear strike.

— 2011, Hungary: A tornado emerged during a fire at a plastics manufacturing plant and completely destroyed the facility.

— 2012, Australia: Fire tornadoes in this hot country are almost an annual occurrence. In 2012, a tornado formed precisely where director Chris Tendji was filming. He managed to capture the terrifying phenomenon on film.

— 2023, Chile: This disaster led to the death of over 20 people and the destruction of 800 homes.

We wish you only wonderful natural phenomena! Remember, to choose the best day for stargazing or to plan an extended trip out of town to admire spring-summer clouds, our precipitation map can assist you.

Fire Tornadoes: Nature's Fiery Spectacle

What causes ball lightning? What is ball lightning? This is our pick of the most mind-boggling facts about ball lightning. Let's unriddle at least some of the riddles.

Ball lightning is described as shining spherical objects floating around or hovering above the ground. Most of the eye-witness accounts describe this enigmatic phenomenon as balls of fire or electricity. Despite plenty of evidence that exists, scientists are not any closer to figuring it out, and we see more and more wild speculations about these mysterious spheres of light. The internet is full of ball lightning photos believed to be real. However, most of them are manipulated images.
What causes ball lightning? What is ball lightning? This is our pick of the most mind-boggling facts about ball lightning. Let's unriddle at least some of the riddles.
 
<figure>

![Authentic zoomed out images of ball lightning at varying times. Source: journals.aps.org/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/DYEqxHxNxcYUfxWQJKam/orig)

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Authentic zoomed out images of ball lightning at varying times. Source: journals.aps.org
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</figure>

## Amazing facts about ball lightning: 

- There is no accepted theory for what causes it or what it is made of (there are over 400 existing hypotheses that describe the nature of ball lightning). One of the theories suggests that these balls of fire consist of electrons and force-activated ions. Some scientists agree that the origin of this phenomenon is sustained by electromagnetic waves generated when the Earth's crust fractures. When the Earth's surface is shaking during an earthquake or minor shocks, these flows of electromagnetic waves soar into the air giving rise to luminescent spheres.
Due to the nature of this rare phenomenon having a lifetime of a few seconds, scientists have not succeeded in making extensive observations of these luminous spheres or in studying their properties.
- Ball lightning is common during thunderstorms. At other times, its causes have no relation to weather conditions.
- All attempts to produce ball lightning in the lab proved to be fruitless: though some motley crews of scientists could bring luminous objects to life, none of them could re-create the original nature of these objects.  The thing is ball lightning looks like plasma bubbles that can't last long in lab conditions.
- A "typical" ball lighting is the size of a cabbage head. There were rare eye-witnesses saying the hovering objects varied from several millimeters to few meters in diameter. Ball lightning can take different forms: it can be round, pear-shaped, circular, ellipsoid, to name just a few.
 
<figure>

![Ball lightning that went down into the house through the chimney. Engraving, 1886 Source: wikipedia.com/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/pXAOICONtFFOoVGINHwb/orig)

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Ball lightning that went down into the house through the chimney. Engraving, 1886 Source: wikipedia.com
</figcaption>

</figure>

- According to the research made by Alexander Grigoriev, a scientist from the city of Yaroslavl, Russia, ball lightning lasts for seconds to hours and vanishes following no particular pattern: either silently or with a blast, disappearing when striking the ground or hitting any type of conductor.

- Ball lightning emits light: sometimes dim, sometimes very intense. Ball lighting can travel at speed ranging from a few centimeters per minute to tens of meters per second.

- These floating spheres can range in color from white to yellow to green, or be even translucent.

- Information about the dangers caused by ball lightning varies enormously: while some witnesses struck by the sphere say they have not suffered any burns, others claim they saw ball lightning setting a haystack alight or even killed people.
 
- Most commonly, ball lightning zips around 1.5 meters above the ground. Still further, it can go several kilometers up from the ground.

- In 1963, ball lightning passed through a US passenger aircraft and vanished instantly not hurting anyone aboard or causing damage to the plane.

- Medveditsk ridge (Russia) located at the border of the Saratov and Volgograd regions is considered to be an anomaly site with the biggest number of ball lightning occurrences across the globe.




Read more

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El Niño and La Niña: What They Are, Differences

Greenhouse gases: The invisible drivers of climate change

Spring in Brazil: cooler and rainier than last year, but still hot

Fire Tornadoes: Nature's Fiery Spectacle

Weather in other cities